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The Electrical Nature of Storms

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Tutorial: BASIC ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

• T.1. Introduction 3
• T.2. Charge, Elementary Particles, and Ions 3
• T.3. Coulomb's Law and Electric Field 4
• T.4. Electrostatic Potential 6
• T.5. Electric Flux and Gauss's Law 10
• T.6. Electric Field On and Inside Conductors 12
• T.7. Charge Transport and Mobility 13
• T.8. Conduction in Gases and Breakdown Strength 15
• T.9. Dielectrics 15
• T.10. Polarization and Dipole Moment 16
• T.11. Induction Charging 17
• T.12. Capacitance and Capacitors 18
• T.13. Energy Storage 19
• T.14. Maxwell's Equations 19
• T.15. Electromagnetic Radiation 20
• T.16. Magnetic Induction 22

Chapter 1: OVERVIEW OF THE ELECTRICAL NATURE OF THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE

• 1.1. Brief History 23
• 1.2. Earth's Magnetic Field 25
• 1.3. The Ionosphere 25
• 1.4. Global Electrical Properties Below the Ionosphere 29

Chapter 2: ELECTRIFIED NON-THUNDERSTORM CLOUDS

• 2.1. Background 41
• 2.2. External Charging of Cloud Boundaries and Screening Layers 42
• 2.3. Electrical Aspects of Different Cloud Genera 44

Chapter 3: INTRODUCTION TO THE ELECTRICAL NATURE OF THUNDERSTORMS

• 3.1. Introduction 49
• 3.2. The Gross Charge Structure of Thunderstorms 49
• 3.3. Current Flow in Thunderstorms 53
• 3.4. Basic Concepts of Electrification 54
• 3.5. Cloud Electrification Mechanisms 61

Chapter 4: CORONA AND POINT DISCHARGE

• 4.1. Introduction 76
• 4.2. Corona Initiation 77
• 4.3. Positive and Negative Corona 78
• 4.4. Point Discharge in the Atmosphere 78
• 4.5. Undesirable Effects of Point Discharge on Measurements 82

Chapter: 5 LIGHTNING

• 5.1. Introduction 83
• 5.2. Types of Cloud Flashes 83
• 5.3. Types of Ground Flashes 84
• 5.4. Lightning Initiation 86
• 5.5. Location of Lightning Origins 88
• 5.6. Visible Characteristics of Ground Flash Development 89
• 5.7. Return Stroke Velocity Measurements 91
• 5.8. Velocity of Other Ground Flash Processes 91
• 5.9. Visual Aspects of Cloud Flashes 92
• 5.10. Overview of Lightning Theory 93
• 5.11. Temperature, Pressure, Electron Number Density, and Thunder 97
• 5.12. Electromagnetic Radiation from Lightning 105
• 5.13. Electrical Current Flow in Lightning 108
• 5.14. Schumann Resonances 114
• 5.15. Red Sprites and Blue Jets 116

Chapter 6: INSTRUMENTS

• 6.1. Electric Field Mills 118
• 6.2. Instruments to Measure E_aloft 122
• 6.3. Instrument for Current Density Carried by Precipitation at Ground Level 131
• 6.4. Charge on Individual Particles 132
• 6.5. Measurement of Small, Cloud Particles Aloft 138
• 6.6. Maxwell Current Sensor 138
• 6.7. Point-Discharge Sensor 139
• 6.8. Ionic Conductivity 140
• 6.9. Lightning Parameters 143
• 6.10. Lightning-Locating Techniques 145

Chapter 7: OBSERVATIONS OF THE ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THUNDERSTORMS

PART I: GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

• 7.1. Introduction 163
• 7.2. Typical History of E_gnd Beneath a Thunderstorm 166
• 7.3. Small-Ion Space Charge During Fair Weather and Convection 168
• 7.4. Small-Ion Space Charge In and Near Electrified Clouds 169
• 7.5. Conductivity Near and In Storms--Theoretical Discussion 170
• 7.6. Conductivity Near and In Storms--Measurements 170
• 7.7. Electric Field Aloft 172
• 7.8. Electric Field and Particle Charges in Anvils 178
• 7.9. Vertical Profiles of Total Space Charge Density 178
• 7.10. Precipitation Charge and Current at the Ground 179
• 7.11. Maxwell Current 181
• 7.12. Simultaneous Measurements of E_aloft and Precipitation Charge 182
• 7.13. Introduction to Lightning Observations in the Context of Thunderstorms 185
• 7.14 Global Flash Rate and Percentage of Flashes over Land and Water 187
• 7.15. Relative Proportions of Different Flash Types 190
• 7.16. Lightning Height and Spatial Extent 192
• 7.17. Lightning Location Relative to Storm Structure 206
• 7.18. Characteristics of Storms Indicative of Lightning Production 216
• 7.19. Lightning-Rainfall Relationships 225
• 7.20. Typical Evolution of Lightning Activity Relative to Storm Evolution 229
• 7.21. Conceptual Models of Influences on Flash Rate and Type 230

Chapter 8: OBSERVATIONS OF THE ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THUNDERSTORMS

PART II: SEVERE, WINTER, AND TROPICAL STORMS AND STORM SYSTEMS

• 8.1. Severe and Supercell Thunderstorms 235
• 8.2. Mesoscale Convective Systems 258
• 8.3. Winter Thunderstorms 286
• 8.4. Tropical Thunderstorms and Non-Thunderstorm Clouds 292
• 8.5. Tropical Cyclones 301

Chapter 9: NUMERICAL MODELS OF THUNDERSTORM ELECTRIFICATION

• 9.1. Introduction 304
• 9.2. Cloud Model Parameterization 305
• 9.3. Brief History of Electrification Modeling 310
• 9.4. Parameterization of Electrical Processes 312
• 9.5. Some Themes of Electrification Model Research 329

Chapter 10: ELECTRICAL EFFECTS ON CLOUD MICROPHYSICS

• 10.1. Relevant Characteristics and Terminology for Hydrometeors 337
• 10.2. Maximum Charge Possible on a Drop 339
• 10.3 Changes in Drop Shape and Terminal Fall Velocity 339
• 10.4. Disruption of Drops 341
• 10.5. Drop Nucleation and Electrofreezing 344
• 10.6. Scavenging of Aerosols 344
• 10.7. Changes in Collision Efficiency 346
• 10.8. Coalescence and Mass Growth of Drops 348
• 10.9. Growth of Ice Particles 352
• 10.10. Changes in Alignment of Hydrometeors from E 355
• 10.11. Precipitation Intensification Associated with Lightning 356
• 10.12. Effects on Atmospheric Chemistry 360

APPENDIX A: LIST OF SYMBOLS 363

APPENDIX B: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS AND CONVERSION FACTORS 366

REFERENCES 369

INDEX 405-422

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